-------------------- Applications -----------------------------------
MP Interconsulting - 'Ultrasonic vibrations in metallurgy'
	Cavitation measurement - p. 39+
	
Cell disruption
	Sonics and Materials - 'High Intensity Ultrasonic Processor'.pdf (at end)	

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================== Cavitation process ==============================================================================
Effect of frequency on power for a given amplitude or velocity?
	Contact authors of 'Attached cavitation at a small diameter ultrasonic horn tip'
		1Laboratory for Water and Turbine Machines
		2Christian Doppler Laboratory for Cavitation and Micro-Erosion
		
	Kobus, Zbigniew - 'Influence of Physical Properties of Liquid On Acoustic Power of Ultrasonic Processor'
		p. 75 - power varies with square of f
			Per theoretical -- L”ning J.M., Horst Ch., Hoffmann U., 2002. Investigations on the energy conversion in sonochemical process. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 9, 169-179 (https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1350417701001134) --> I have this.
			
	Energy characterisation of ultrasonic systems for industrial processes (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041624X14002881)
	
	Comparison of calorimetric energy and cavitation energy for the removal of bisphenol-A: The effects of frequency and liquid height (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385894711015348)
	
	A parametric review of sonochemistry: Control and augmentation of sonochemical activity in aqueous solutions (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1350417717301220)

Shielding 
	If cavitation erosion proceeds too far then vapors may be trapped within the eroded pockets, thereby shielding the fluid from the horn. See Berliner + other.
	
Cavitation threshold
	Peshkovsky_Sergei_(Industrial_Sonomechanics)__US_patent_8651230B2_(2014)_'High_Capacity_Ultrasonic_Reactor_System'
		In the article by A. Moussatov, R Mettin, C. Granger et all "Evolution of Acoustic Cavitation Structures Near Larger Emitting Surface", WCU 2003, Paris, Sep. 7-10, 2003, hereby incorporated by reference, a similar experimental study Was conducted. The results shoW that during operation of an acoustic horn, a stable Well developed cavitation ?led only starts to form When the folloWing tWo necessary conditions are fulfilled: (1) speci?c intensity of the ultrasonic energy radiated into liquid exceeds 8 W/cm2 (for Water) and (2) the output diameter of the radiator?s cross section is on the order of the acoustic Wavelength, 7¯, in the original supplied liquid load (before cavitation has started). In other Words, the radiator should transmit a planar acoustic Wave into the liquid.	

================== Cavitation erosion ==============================================================================

ASTM 1998. Standard Test Method for Cavitation Erosion Using Vibratory Apparatus:
G32-98 , Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials:
107-120.
Caupin - 
	"We plan to use optical techniques to get the local and instantaneous density and sound velocity inside the sound wave used for acoustic cavitation." (p. 1010)
	"Erosion and damage by cavitation are clearly reviewed in Refs. [5, Chapter 5.4.1] or [7]. We will just mention here that damage arises during the cavity collapse, by two mechanisms. First, the collapse emits a large shock wave in the liquid, whose effects can be enhanced by the collective collapse of many bubbles in a cavitation cloud. The second mechanism is due to asymmetric collapse: because of the proximity of a wall, or of a passing shock wave (emitted by another collapsing bubble), the bubble loses its spherical shape, a high speed liquid jet is formed and impinges the solid surface." pp. 1013 - 1014
	[5] T.G. Leighton, The Acoustic Bubble, Academic Press, London, 1994
	[7] J.-P. Franc, J.-M. Michel, Fundamentals of Cavitation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London, 2004
	
Attacks grain boundaries (weakest point) --> reference?
	- try single crystals (no grain boundaries) --> somewhere I have found. Tungsten?


Somewhere is ref that cavitation resistance may be amplitude sensitive for some materials (i.e., a material that shows high resistance at low amplitudes may show relatively lower resistance at high amplitudes, compared to other materials)


================== Cavitation erosion - materials ==================================================================
Sapphire -
	Advertized by Qsonica
	See Berliner - http://berliner-ultrasonics.org/uson-7.html
	S&m report
	Misonix -
		https://mm.ece.ubc.ca/mediawiki/images/c/c7/XL2020_MANUAL.pdf
		https://chemistry.pages.tcnj.edu/files/2013/10/MisonixSonicator3000Manual.pdf
		Misonix__'Sonicator_3000_Ultrasonic_Liquid_Processor'.pdf
	https://www.assemblymag.com/articles/85409-soldering-the-unsolderable
	https://www.uni-obuda.hu/journal/Kolenak_Kostolny_68.pdf
	Sonics --
		Discussion with Bob Soloff & Mike Donaty 2018-07-23
			Ti surface must be properly prepared for epoxy.
			Epoxy is very expensive (~$400 for small container)
			Final cost to customer = $2000+

NiAl bronze - 
	"Nibral is an alloy of nickel, bronze, and aluminum. It is stronger than bronze, but not as strong as stainless steel. Most propellers for tournament inboards are made of nibral." (www.elberts.com/faq.htm)
	Approx same erosion rate as 316L SS & titanium (Kendrick H. Light, "DEVELOPMENT OF A CAVITATION EROSION RESISTANT ADVANCED MATERIAL SYSTEM" (thesis, 1993) , fig. 5.5, p. 40)
	
	Qin__'Microstructure_design_to_improve_the_corrosion_and_cavitation_corrosion_resistance_of_a_nickel-aluminum_bronze'
		Qin, Zhenbo; Zhang, Qi; Luo, Qin; Wu, Zhong; Shen, Bin; Lei, Liu; Hu, Wenbin. (2018). Microstructure design to improve the corrosion and cavitation corrosion resistance of a nickel-aluminum bronze. Corrosion Science. 139. 10.1016/j.corsci.2018.04.043. 

Flame spray coatings 
	Matikainen__'Abrasion_Erosion_and_Cavitation_Erosion_Wear_Properties_of_Thermally_Sprayed_Alumina_Based_Coatings'
		Fig 8 shows that Ti-6al-4V has significantly lower erosion (mg) than coatings. However -
			1. Ti and coatings have different densities. Therefore, comparing mg maybe not best method.
			2. Coatings were stationary whereas Ti was U/S tip.
		As cavitation erosion begins, the shock waves created by the collapse of the cavitation bubbles near the surface start working the whole surface area. Poorly bonded particles or lamellas on the polished surfaces are the first ones to be removed by the cavitation erosion. (p. 27)